Human Resources Management ( Hrm ) Essay - 794 Words

Human Resources Management (HRM) is people who work in an organization. The manager is a person who manages people, leads, facilitates and provide tools for the organization. Human resources management also, sets strategic processes and procedures, run difficult and complex communication as the organization attracts the best talents from the recruiting process. Human resources management is where everything begins and ends for an individual and the organization. Consequently, it’s where total processes are created for the organization and the individual, for example: planning, forecasting, compensation, benefits, diversity, salary, decisions, ethics, records, right protection, leadership, development, and the list is infinite. In view of the fact that everything starts with HRM, it faces many challenges for the organization and the individual. The textbook describe challenges as the problems that the managers recognize and take immediate action to resolve them. For insta nce, challenges for the organizations include; competitive positions: cost, quality, distinctive capabilities, decentralization, downsizing, organizational restructuring, self-managed work team, small business, organizational culture, technology, outsourcing. In order for the organization to meet these challenges head on, managers must be proactive, take action before the problem gets out of control. The challenges that HRM faces with the individual are matching people andShow MoreRelatedHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )1508 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"Human resource management (HRM) is the managing of human skills and talents to make sure they are used effectively and in alignment with an organization’s goals† (Youssef, 2012). The primary role of human resource management is to plan, develop, and order policies and programmers designed to make prompt use of an organization’s human resources. It is that part of management which is concerned with the people at wo rk and with their relationship within an organization. I currently work for a HumanRead MoreHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )1552 Words   |  7 PagesHuman Resource Management (HRM) is the function within an association that has emphases on the employment of, administration of, and providing direction for the employees within an organization. The Human Resource Management department members deliver knowledge, training, tools, administrative services, and lawful and organization advice. The HRM department is organized by very talented managers who has a mission to make sure the rest of the business has the needs for successful operation. HumanRead MoreHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )1562 Words   |  7 PagesHuman resource management (HRM) is an important strategic and systematic approach that provides each company with the opportunity to create policies and practices, as well as to establish administrative forms (Pfeffer, 2007). According to Armstrong (2009) HRM is an approach t hat deals with ‘employment, development, and well-being of the people working in organizations’. However HRM has evolved significantly through the years due to the rapid social, economic, political and environmental changes.Read MoreHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )1142 Words   |  5 Pageshe HRM Process Human Resource Management (HRM) is a combination of elements that work interdependently on each other to carry out the daily functions within an organization. Human Resources Management operates in several roles serving as a liaison between the organization and the employee. This dual role often present challenges within HRM; therefore it is vital the HRM Department is skilled on various issues that may arise on a daily basis within an organization. In this paper, I will discussRead MoreHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )1105 Words   |  5 PagesHuman Resource Management (HRM) is the function within an association that has emphases on the employment of, administration of, and providing direction for the employees within an organization. The Human Resource Management department members deliver knowledge, training, tools, administrative services, and lawful and organization advice. The HRM department is organized by very talented managers who has a mission to make sure the rest o f the business has the needs for successful operation. HumanRead MoreHuman Resource Management : Hrm772 Words   |  4 Pagesa brief description of the models of HRM discussed in the first chapter of the textbook, and explain how each one relates to strategic human resource management. Human Resource Management (HRM) at its best seeks to manage people and resources to maximize economic and social outputs. Social output resulting from providing opportunity for advancement will ultimately make employees become true participants in the company. Bratton and Gold (2012) outline six HRM models, they are: the Forbrum, TichyRead MoreHrm And The And Human Resource Management1094 Words   |  5 PagesIntroduction The main purpose to write this essay is to analogize the differences in the field of HRM and IR. The Foundation of Industrial Relations and Human Resource Management is based on intense academic study. The essay is an endeavor to illustrate by scrutinizing their objectives and the viewpoints or the approaches of this field. The first part of the essay is an attempt to define HRM and IR and it further continues to explain the differences and similarities between the two. In the lastRead MoreHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )1405 Words   |  6 PagesHuman Resource Management (HRM) seeks to manage people and resources to maximize economic and social outputs. Bratton and Gold (2012) outline six HRM models which include: the Forbrum, Tichy and Devanna model, the Harvard model, the Guest model, the Warwick model, The Storey model, and Ulrich’s Strategic Partner model of HRM. Forbrum Tichy and Devanna model of HRM is based on the principle of selecting, appraising, developing and rewarding employees who fulfill management strategic business interestsRead MoreHuman Resource Management ( Hrm )2412 Words   |  10 Pages these human traits can bring considerable benefits to organizations† (Mullins 1999). However, when managed poorly they have the potential to limit organizational growth and threaten the viability of a business. â€Å"There are countless examples of corporate and project crises in the construction sector which have arisen as the result of people s behaviour, and it would seem that human resource management (HRM) has the potential to eliminate more construction risks than any other management approach†Read MoreHuman Resources Management ( Hrm )1229 Words   |  5 Pages Human Resources Management (HRM) is people who work in an organization. The manager is a person who manages people, leads, facilitates and provide tools for the organization. HRM sets strategic processes and procedures, run difficult and complex communication as the organization attracts the best talents from the recruiting process. Human resources management is where everything begins and ends for an individual and the organization. Meaning, it’s where total processes are created for the

Persuasive Essay On Gun Control - 941 Words

Gun control will not protect United States citizens any more than having no gun control, it will keep the guns away from the responsibility, and do nothing to prevent criminals from obtaining them. Numerous natives and government officials trust that firearm confinements will diminish murder rates and wrongdoing greatly; nonetheless, this isnt the situation. If a criminal has the urge to commit a crime, they will got to all stakes to obtain a gun. Even though it is illegal. Gun control laws will not protect this country because law abiding citizens will not obtain guns, but they will still find ways to cause commotion; therefore, there is no point of keeping guns out of their hands.Over the last three years, Minnehaha and Pennington†¦show more content†¦Regardless of the possibility that firearms were taken away, culprits would utilize diverse weapons to slaughter; for example, blades, bats, and broken jugs. Humans with malicious intends will still harm others, it doesnt mat ter if they have a gun or not: therefore, there is reason to impact gun restrictions. Firearms can be utilized to perpetrate demonstrations of viciousness and disregard human rights; nonetheless, they can likewise be utilized to keep those things and keep our country free of corruption and wrongdoing. There are various weapon laws put in place, as there must be. Firearms can be promoted for maliciousness and malpractice and they have to make sure certain individuals are not adequate of appropriating them. Firearm laws are in place to keep these weapons out of risky peoples hands. As stated before even some of the most conservative states deny people with criminal records guns, because they are violent offenders or have drug related crimes. Weapon laws should keep firearms far from risky individuals not the general population who utilize them with mind and have no malevolent purpose.â€Å"There are many requirements in order to perchance a gun such as licensing, registration and waiting periods† During this time there are background checks taking place in order to prove you are who you claim to be and that you will be able to use guns responsibly and safely. These measures should be a requirement to useShow MoreRelatedPersuasive Essay : Gun Control798 Words   |  4 PagesP ersuasive Essay Did you know that in the United States almost 100,000 people are shot or killed with a gun in one year? 10,527 people die a year in handgun related incidents in the United States. This number, by far, outweighs the number of gun related deaths in countries such as Sweden, Great Britain, and Japan, which number 13, 22, and 87, respectively. What is the reason for such drastic differences in numbers? Sweden, Great Britain, and Japan are all countries that have stricter gun controlRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control1753 Words   |  8 PagesPersuasive Essay Rough Draft The United States of America has a problem that is growing worse every day. American laws are not protecting its citizens from injury or death. You may think the mass shootings in America the guns used were bought illegally, but â€Å"since 1982, there have been at least 62 mass shooter carried out with firearms across the country, with the killings unfolding in 30 states from Massachusetts to Hawaii. Of the 139 guns possessed by the killers, more than three quarters wereRead More Persuasive Articles on Gun Control Essays607 Words   |  3 PagesPersuasive Articles on Gun Control Persuading an audience can be done in several different fashions, one of which is Hugh Rank’s Model of Persuasion. Rank’s model states that two major strategies are used to achieve the particular goal of persuasion. These strategies are nicely set into two main schemas; the first method is to exaggerate an aspect of something, known as â€Å"intensify.† While the second is to discredit it, which is referred to as â€Å"downplay.† Al Franken, Jeffrey SnyderRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control1018 Words   |  5 PagesImagine, an America where no citizen, law abiding or not, has the legal ability to own guns. Three gunmen with fully automatic rifles walk into a crowded city and begin firing. No law abiding citizen can defend themselves. It’s hopeless. This future can only be prevented if Americans continue to keep the second amendment. We should keep the current gun control laws, but revise them to make them even better. Most gun own ers are responsible under the current laws, however, I think some laws need to beRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control1245 Words   |  5 Pagesand time again. Due to recent tragedies involving firearms, the view of guns and peoples rights to own and operate firearms have been frowned upon and viewed in a bad light due to Media. News sources have cherrypicked pictures of tragedies and stories about bad instances of gun usage in order to fight for Gun Control and the suppression of Americans rights. Due to the recent Vegas shooting, the argument for Gun Control has never been more intense, and Media outlets are having a field day onRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control915 Words   |  4 PagesHistorically guns haven’t been a national issue. It is not until relatively recently that an overwhelming amount of people have been in favor of placing stricter laws on the owning of a fire arm. The call for gun control has become more prevalent in the eyes of the government and the people; the gun laws that are also often proposed are irrational and ineffective. One could not simply ban guns, it is comparable to banning a certain genre of music; it’s unachievable and would be a fruitless pursuitRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control1745 Words   |  7 Pagescruelty to animals, and yet he was able to buy four guns legally (Rosenberg). That is the most recent example of why Americans need more gun control laws. Guns are not cool or makes you look good, they are a da ngerous piece of machinery that Americans take advantage of. The average American in the right mindset should not want to own anything more than one handgun or rifle for hunting or protecting their household. Gun control reform that limits gun ownership, enforces mandatory background checks, andRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control1439 Words   |  6 Pagesreason why Americans own so many guns is because of the Second Amendment, which states, â€Å"A well-regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a Free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.† (Rauch) This amendment guarantees U.S. citizens the right to have firearms. Since this amendment is relatively vague, it is up for interpretation, and is often used by gun advocates to argue for lenient gun laws. Hence, gun control is a frequently discussed controversialRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control967 Words   |  4 Pagessaid gun violence has gotten out of hand. This do esn’t mean that the second amendment is the cause of it. Gun Violence has become such a big part of the Second Amendment since they both play a major part of the gun industry. Guns have become such a powerful source to many individuals. With the second amendment placed, this means we have gun control, which are rules that regulate, the manufacture, possession, modification, or use of firearms by civilians. There should be a stricter law on gun controlRead MorePersuasive Essay On Gun Control1634 Words   |  7 PagesOver the recents years, there have been many arguments about the issue of gun control at the state and national level. In California, there have been a variety of enacted laws within recent years to address the issue of growing gun violence around the country and ways to prevent terrorist attacks. California s new enacted laws about gun control in the state range from abolishing certain features on weapons to restricting certain handguns or other firearms a person might buy. The legislative branch

The Scarlet Letter and Hesters Identity Essay - 786 Words

First of all, the scarlet letter stands for Hesters sin. By forcing Hester to wear the letter A on her bosom, the Puritan community not only punishes this weak young woman for her adultery but labels her identity as an adulteress and immoral human being as well. Thus the young and the pure would be taught to look at her, with the letter flaming on her chest, also as the figure, the body and the reality of sin. And the day Hester began to wear the scarlet A on her bosom is the opening of her darkness. From that moment, people, who look at her, must notice the letter A manifest itself in the red color covering not only her bosom, but her own character. The Puritans now only see the letter A, the representation of sin, scorn and hate†¦show more content†¦The sin of adultery she once made doesnt exist in the letter A any more. It has transformed from adultery into able, acceptable, and off course its made Hester the woman of pride, kindness, and respect. Hester did such an outst anding evolution that no woman in her times can: expressing self-identity, proving woman strength by showing her self-reliance and independence, revealing her goodness and kindness for people, and earning respect and pride. Together with the transformation of Hester, the scarlet letter once again symbolizes her identity as pure as an angel. Though she committed adultery and had to suffer a lot from this sin, her soul still remains in an original shape of purity. And the red color of letter A on her bosom, which once was the call of scorn, hate and bitterness towards Hester, now attracted peoples warmth, admiration and love as if it were a red burning color deep inside her heart. Hester deserves the highest recognition that the scarlet letter has done for her: a woman with a pure heart and soul of an angel. The most irony in the novel is the differences between the identity from which society assigns for Hester through the scarlet letter and the identity which she creates by herself. Though, letter A is a label of sin which people in the community try to impose on Hester, she doesnt let this Puritan view interfere her thought and feeling. On the contrast it seems that this letter also exposes theShow MoreRelated Rev. Arthur Dimmesdale and Hester’s Quest for Identity in Hawthornes Scarlet Letter2490 Words   |  10 PagesDimmesdale and Hester’s Quest for Identity in The Scarlet Letter  Ã‚     Ã‚   While allegory is an explicit and tempting reading of Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, I see in this novel also the potential of a psychological reading, interpreting it as a search for one’s own self. Both Arthur Dimmesdale and Hester Prynne goes through this process and finally succeeded in finding the duality of ones personality, and the impossibility of complementing the split between individual and community identity. HoweverRead MoreWhat Is the Moral of the Scarlet Letter Essay1116 Words   |  5 Pages The scarlet letter is a text written by Nathaniel Hawthorne in 1850 a fictional work which tells about the history of England during the puritan age and the story of women named Hester Prynne. The author feels this text as a romantic work because the text includes about love and the adulteress. The text involves facts and fiction of the author such as the â€Å"Custom-House is a fact and real, while the author was workin g as a surveyor in the Salem custom house inRead MoreMahek Mehta Ap Preparation Guide : The Scarlet Letter1175 Words   |  5 PagesMahek Mehta AP Preparation Guide: The Scarlet Letter Introduction: The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne is the most famous of the American romanticist’s works, which often centered on the topic of America’s Puritan history. Led by John Winthrop, the Puritans formed a theology in Massachusetts in the 1630s. They were English Protestants who migrated to the New World and demanded greater religious discipline than their English counterparts. Romanticism was divided intoRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne And The Awakening1416 Words   |  6 Pagesexists in society does not only affect the individual being discriminated against, but the people close to them as well. This is demonstrated through the novels The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne and The Awakening by Kate Chopin. The Scarlet Letter follows the story of a woman named Hester Prynne who is forced to wear a scarlet letter â€Å"A† on her chest as punishment for her crime of adultery. The Awakening follows the story of a woman named Edn a Pontellier and the struggle that she faces when sheRead MoreThe Thematic Trifecta Of The Scarlet Letter1429 Words   |  6 PagesThe Thematic Trifecta of The Scarlet Letter The Scarlet Letter, written by Nathaniel Hawthorne, narrates the experiences of Hester Prynne, a beautiful young woman in Puritan times, after committing the sin of adultery with the local Reverend, Mr. Arthur Dimmesdale. Because she became pregnant, she bears the public scorn of her sin, while the town does not uncover Mr. Dimmesdale’s participation in the act until the very end of the novel. Using the Puritan society as the setting, and the developmentRead MoreSummary Of The Scarlet Letter 1436 Words   |  6 PagesThe Scarlet Letter Journal 1 I empathize most with Reverend Dimmesdale. He had to live with the secret of his sin for many years. He also was a reverend and had to preach about sins every Sunday and so was reminded constantly of what he did. In fact he felt so guilty about receiving no punishment while Hester was cursed with the letter that he â€Å"inflicted a hideous torture on himself† by carving the letter A into his own chest (Hawthorne 176). He has also had to endure much from Roger ChillingsworthRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne Essay1183 Words   |  5 PagesThe Scarlet Letter   Ã‚  Ã‚   The title of my novel is The Scarlet Letter by the prestigious author Nathaniel Hawthorne. The story is set in the mid-seventeenth century in Boston, Massachusetts. It is set during a time in which religion seems to govern over all. The puritan people looked up to the reverends and the community leaders and believed whatever they said as their destinies. During this time everyone was expected to follow the puritan law. Public punishment and shame were used to ensure that peopleRead MoreA Romantic View Of Hester Prynne Essay1316 Words   |  6 PagesHawthorne is also sympathetic to these ideals, but in The Scarlet Letter, he conveys them in the format of a novel where one of his main characters, Hester Prynne, is surrounded by rigid and unforgiving Puritanism in seventeenth century Boston. Through Hester’s struggles, Hawthorne paints a human and personal perspective of Romanticism, but, rather than using The Scarlet Letter simply to echo Thoreau and Emerson, Hawth orne also uses Hester’s story to condemn Puritanism as heartless, unreasonable andRead MoreThe Theme Of Sin In The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne777 Words   |  4 Pages When examining the novel, The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, this same concept holds true. For he who said, â€Å"do not commit adultery†, also said, â€Å"do not kill.† This statement reveals that all sins are equal in the eyes of God. However, the Puritan society hypocritically judges some sins to be greater than others. One example of this is the sin of adultery. Adultery is considered to be one of the worst sins of all. The main characters in The Scarlet Letter all commit sins, but HawthorneRead MoreNathaniel Hawthorne s The Scarlet Letter1631 Words   |  7 Pagesdeveloped the theme for his most renowned literary novel, The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne emphasized the impact that societal isolation can have on individuals. Several of the victi ms inflicted with isolation throughout the novel were ultimately met with their inevitable downfalls. One particular character, Hester Prynne, was selected to undergo a struggle comparable to Hawthorne’s own. Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter centered its characters on a theme of both physical and

Fusion Essay Example For Students

Fusion Essay Fusion reactions are inhibited by the electrical repulsive force that acts between two positively charged nuclei. For fusion to occur, the two nuclei must approach each other at high speed to overcome the electrical repulsion and attain a sufficiently small separation (less than one-trillionth of a centimeter) that the short-range strong nuclear force dominates. For the production of useful amounts of energy, a large number of nuclei must under go fusion: that is to say, a gas of fusing nuclei must be produced. In a gas at extremely high temperature, the average nucleus contains sufficient kinetic energy to undergo fusion. Such a medium can be produced by heating an ordinary gas of neutral atoms beyond the temperature at which electrons are knocked out of the atoms. The result is an ionized gas consisting of free negative electrons and positive nuclei. This gas constitutes a plasma. Plasma, in physics, is an electrically conducting medium in which there are roughly equal numbers of positively and negatively charged particles, produced when the atoms in a gas become ionized. It is sometimes referred to as the fourth state of matter, distinct from the solid, liquid, and gaseous states. When energy is continuously applied to a solid, it first melts, then it vaporizes, and finally electrons are removed from some of the neutral gas atoms and molecules to yield a mixture of positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons, while overall neutral charge density is maintained. When a significant portion of the gas has been ionized, its properties will be altered so substantially that little resemblance to solids, liquids, and gases remains. A plasma is unique in the way in which it interacts with itself with electric and magnetic fields, and with its environment. A plasma can be thought of as a collection of ions, electrons, neutral atoms and molecules, an photons in which some atoms are being ionized simultaneously with other electrons recombining with ions to form neutral particles, while photons are continuously being produced and absorbed. Scientists have estimated that more than 99 percent of the matter in the universe exists in the plasma state. All of the observed stars, including the Sun, consist of plasma, as do interstellar and interplanetary media and the outer atmospheres of the planets. Although most terrestrial matter exists in a solid, liquid or gaseous state, plasma is found in lightning bolts and auroras, in gaseous discharge lamps (neon lights), and in the crystal structure of metallic solids. Plasmas are currently being studied as an affordable source of clean electric power from thermonuclear fusion reactions. The scientific problem for fusion is thus the problem of producing and confining a hot, dense plasma. The core of a fusion reactor would consist of burning plasma. Fusion would occur between the nuclei, with electrons present only to maintain macroscopic charge neutrality. Stars, including the Sun, consist of plasma that generates energy by fusion reactions. In these ?natural fusion reactors? the reacting, or burning, plasma is confirmed by its own gravity. It is not possible to assemble on Earth a plasma sufficiently massive to be gravitationally confined. The hydrogen bomb is an example of fusion reactions produced in an uncontrolled, unconfined manner in which the energy density is so high that the energy release is explosive. By contrast, the use of fusion for peaceful energy generating requires control and confinement of a plasma at high temperature and is often called controlled thermonuclear fusion. In the development of fusion power technology, demonstration of ? energy breakeven? is taken to signify the scientific feasibility of fusion. At breakeven, the fusion power produced by a plasma is equal to the power input to maintain the plasma. This requires a plasma that is hot, dense, and well confined. The temperature required, about 100 million Kelvins, is several times that of the Sun. The product of the density and energy confinement time of the plasma (the time it takes the plasma to lose its energy if not replaced) must exceed a critical value. There are two main approaches to controlled fusion ? namely, magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. Magnetic confinement of plasmas is the most highly developed approach to controlled fusion. The hot plasma is contained by magnetic forces exerted on the charged particles. A large part of the problem of fusion has been the attainment of magnetic field configurations that effectively confine the plasma. A successful configuration must meet three criteria: (1) the plasma must be in a time-independent equilibrium state, (2) the equilibrium must be macroscopically stable, and (3) the leakage of plasma energy to the bounding wall must be small. A single charged particle tends to spiral about a magnetic line of force. It is necessary that the single particle trajectories do not intersect the wall. Moreover, the pressure force, arising from the thermal energy of all the particles, is in a direction to expand the plasma. For the plasma to be in equilibrium, the magnetic force acting on the electric current within the plasma must balance the pressure force at every point in the plasma. The equilibrium thus obtained has to be stable. A plasma is stable if after a small perturbation it returns to its original state. A plasma is continually perturbed by random thermal noise fluctuations. If unstable, it might depart from its equilibrium state and rapidly escape the confines of the magnetic field (perhaps in less than one-thousandth of a second). A plasma in stable equilibrium can be maintained indefinitely if the leakage of energy from the plasma is balanced by energy input. If the plasma energy loss is too large, then ignition cannot be achieved. An unavoidable diffusion of energy across the magnetic field lines will occur from the collisions between the particles. Exemplification: Separation of Church and State Essay Neutron bombardment would activate the walls of the containment vessel, but such activated material is shorter-lived and less toxic than the waste products of a fission reactor. Moreover, even this activation problem may be eliminated, either by the development of advanced, low-activation materials, such as vanadium-based materials, or by the employment of advanced fusion-fuel cycles that do not produce neutrons, such as the fusion of deuterons with helium-3 nuclei. Nearly neutron-free fusion systems, which require higher temperatures than D-T fusion, might make up a second generation of fusion reactors). Finally, a fusion reactor would not release the gaseous pollutants that accompany the combustion of fossil fuels; hence, fusion would not produce a greenhouse effect. The fusion process has been studied as part of nuclear physics for much of the 20th century. In the late 1930s the German-born physicist Hans A. Bethe first recognized that the fusion of hydrogen nuclei to form deuterium is exoergic (there is release of energy) and, together with subsequent reactions, accounts for the energy source in stars. Work proceeded over the next two decades, motivated by the need to understand nuclear matter and forces, to learn more about the nuclear physics of stellar objects, and to develop thermonuclear weapons (the hydrogen bomb) and predict their performance. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, research programs in the United States, United Kingdom, and Soviet Union began to yield a better understanding of nuclear fusion, and investigators embarked on ways of exploiting the process for practical energy production. This work focused on the use of magnetic fields and electromagnetic forces to contain extremely hot gases called plasmas. A plasma consists of unbound electrons and positive ions whose motion is dominated by electromagnetic interactions. It is the only state of matter in which thermonuclear reactions can occur in a self-sustaining manner. Astrophysics and magnetic fusion research, among other fields, require extensive knowledge of how gases behave in the plasma state. The inadequacy of the then-existent knowledge became clearly apparent in the 1950s as the behavior of plasma in many of the early magnetic confinement systems proved too complex to understand. Moreover, researchers found that confining fusion plasma in a magnetic trap was far more challenging than they had anticipated. Plasma must be heated to tens of millions of degrees Kelvin or higher to induce and sustain the thermonuclear reaction required to produce usable amounts of energy. At temperatures this high, the nuclei in the plasma move rapidly enough to overcome their mutual repulsion and fuse. It is exceedingly difficult to contain plasmas at such a temperature level because the hot gases tend to expand and escape from the enclosing structure. The work of the major American, British, and Soviet fusion programs was strictly classified until 1958. That year, research objectives were made public, and many of the topics being studied were found to be similar, as were the problems encountered. Since that time, investigators have continued to study and measure fusion reactions between the lighter elements and have arrived at more accurate determinations of reaction rates. Also, the formulas developed by nuclear physicists for predicting the rate of fusion-energy generation have been adopted by astrophysicists to derive new information about the structure of the stellar interior and about the evolution of stars. The late 1960s witnessed a major advance in efforts to harness fusion reactions for practical energy production: the Soviets announced the achievement of high plasma temperature (about 3,000,000 K), along with other physical parameters, in a tokamak, a toroidal magnetic confinement system in which the plasma is kept generally stable both by an externally generated, doughnut-shaped magnetic field and by electric currents flowing within the plasma itself. (The basic concept of the tokamak had been first proposed by Andrey D. Sakharov and Igor Y. Tamm around 1950.) Since its development, the tokamak has been the focus of most research, though other approaches have been pursued as well. Employing the tokamak concept, physicists have attained conditions in plasmas that approach those required for practical fusion-power generation. Work on another major approach to fusion energy, called inertial confinement fusion (ICF), has been carried on since the early 1960s. Initial efforts were undertaken in 1961 with a then-classified proposal that large pulses of laser energy could be used to implode and shock-heat matter to temperatures at which nuclear fusion would be vigorous. Aspects of inertial confinement fusion were declassified in the 1970s, but a key element of the workspecifically the design of targets containing pellets of fusion fuelsstill is largely secret. Very painstaking work to design and develop suitable targets continues today. At the same time, significant progress has been made in developing high-energy, short-pulse drivers with which to implode millimeter-radius targets. The drivers include both high-power lasers and particle accelerators capable of producing beams of high-energy electrons or ions. Lasers that produce more than 100,000 joules in pulses on the order of one nanosecond (10-9 second) have been developed, and the power available in short bursts exceeds 1014 watts. Best estimates are that practical inertial confinement for fusion energy will require either laser or particle-beam drivers with an energy of 5,000,000 to 10,000,000 joules capable of delivering more than 1014 watts of power to a small target of deuterium and tritium .